ANCIENT INDIA - THE VEDIC AGE

The history of Vedic India is known largely through its religious texts, the Veilas, which gave the period its name. The Vedas recorded nor only the religion of the Vedic people, but also details of their lives that give us a glimpse of their Political, Social and Economic life.

The Aryans

• There are many theories about the origin of Aryans. The most accepted view is that they lived in the great steppe land which stretches from Poland to Central Asia. They were semi-nomadic people.

• The Boghaz Kai inscription dated 1400 BC gives the information about peace treaty between the Hittites and the Mitzanis rulers of the Hittani, in which the names of the. Vedic Gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatya and Varuna are mentioned. This supports the view of the Central Asian homeland theory that Central Asia was Aryan homeland

• Vedic age was divided into two parts, which are as follow

1. Early Vedic Age from 1500 BC - 1000 BC

1. Later Vedic Age from 1000 BC - 600 BC

Early Vedic Age (1500 BC-1000 BC)

The main source of information for the study of early Vedic age people is the Rigveda. The founders of the Vedic culture, were the Aryans, probably immigrant people whose first arrival in India is dated around 2000-1500 BC.

The Rig Vedic Age

• The Rig Veda gives us information that Aryans first settled at the region called Sapta Sindhu or the land of seven rivers (presently that region in is East Afghanistan, Punjab and West UP)-Indus, Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, Sutlej and Saraswati. Saraswati was most pious river.

• Early Aryans were semi-nomadic and later on, they became cultivator. They gave great preference to the cattle, so the ruling class was warrior who were able to fight for cattle.

The Rig Vedic Society

• The Rig Vedic society was based on kinship. The early Aryans were essentially tribal and egalitarians.

• Tribe was called Jana. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the family was known as Grihapati.

• Society was patriarchal, generally monogamy was practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families.

• Existence of joint family pattern, where women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and intellectual development. Eldest male member of the family was known as Kulapa.

Social Division

• Varna was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryan language speakers were fair and the indigenous inhabitants were dark in complexion.

• No evidence of caste system is found. Members of same family may took different occupation. This is well illustrated in a hymn of 9th mandala. Non-Aryans were called Dasas or Shudras.

• Women possessed respectable status in the society, took part in tribal assemblies, in religious sacrifices along with their husbands. Child marriage was not in existence. The marriageable age was 16 or 17 years for girls/1976

• Widow remarriage and Niyoga prevailed in society.

• There was no Purdah system and the practice of Sati was absent.

The Rig Vedic Polity

• The head was the supreme of the tribe or Jana, but he was not supreme in powers, but worked on the collective response of the tribal assemblies.

• Tribal assemblies were Sabba, Samiti, Gana and Vidhata. Vidhata was the oldest one. These assemblies upholds every important activity (like social, military, religious etc).

• Sabha and samiti were known as the twin daughters of Prajapati.

• In Rig Veda, there is mention of tribal conflict and battle of ten kings in which Bharata found with host of ten other kings.

The Rig Vedic Religion

• The early Vedic people were nature worshippers. Neither they had temples nor idols. They worshipped by the means of recitation of Mantra.

• The motive of worship was to get Praja (children), Pasu (cattle) and Dhana (wealth), till that time they don't require spiritual upliftment.

• Boghazkai inscription of 1400 BC found in Asia Minor (Turkey) has mention of four Gods-Indra, Mitra, Varun and Nasarya.

Gods

• Goddess Usha-Goddess of dawn, Aditi-Mother of Gods, Prithvi-Earth Goddess, Aryani-The Forest Goddess.

• Indra 250 hymns of Rig Veda are dedicated to Indra. He was also known as Purandbar or the destroyer of the forts. He was also worshipped as 'God of War'.

• Varuna He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order and regulated it by dice. It was believed that whatever is happening in the world is/was related with the desire of God Varuna.

• Agni He was second most important God. About 200 hymns of Rig Veda were attributed to Agni. Agni was called the intermediary God between God and man. 

• Soma God of plants. Special hymns were given to Soma (9th mandala of Rig Veda is dedicated to Soma).

• Dyaus Father of Indra. (Dyases means heaven)

• Ashwin Healer of wounds and surgeon.

• Surya or Savitri, (the God of light) was the solar God. The gayatri mantra is addressed to the Savitri in 3rd mandala of Rig Veda, which was composed by Maharishi Vishwamitra.

• Pushan Guardian of roads, herdsmen and cattle.

Later Vedic Age (1000 BC-600 BC)

The expression 'later Vedic age' comprises the far reaching changes and developments that took place in the religious, social, economic and political conditions of the people during the period when the later Samhitas i.e. Samaveda,

Yajurveda and Atharvaveda, and the Brahmanas, Arayank and Upanishads were composed. The age is also known as Painted Grey Ware (PGW) iron phase.

Geographical Extent

• During the later Vedic period, Aryans moved into Eastward and Southward areas. A study of the literature reveals that moving from Punjab, the Aryans settled in Delhi and upper Gangetic doab.

• The story of Agni and Videha Madhav moving Eastward, as narrated in Satpatha Brahmana, gives a proof of the Eastward march.

Religion

The importance of Rig Vedic Gods reduced. New Gods were popularised such as Prajapati, Vishnu and Rudra. Pushan, the cow protector, became the God of Shudras.

Political Organisation

• Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.

• Powers of the king (Samrat) increased. Importance of assemblies declined.

• Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies. The term 'rashtra' indicating territory first appeared in this period.

• A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.

• There were references of priest (Purohita), Commander-in-chief (Senapati), Charioteer (Suta), Treasurer (Sangrahita), Tax collector (Bhagdugba), Chief queen (Mabisi) and the Game companion (Aksavapa).

Social Life

• The four-fold division of society became clear initially based on occupation, which later became hereditary. The four classes were Brahmins (Priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas (Agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three).

• Women enjoyed freedom and respect, but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time.

• The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors.

• In this time also, Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the main pastime.

Pottery

• The later Vedic people used four types of pottery black ware, red ware, black-stripped ware and painted grey ware.

• Red ware was most popular among them and has been found almost all over Western UP. However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.

Vedic Literature

werd Veda is derived from Sanskrit word vid, meaning 'to Low signifying knowledge par excellence'. The Vedic text are drate directly revealed to authors by God.

• Smritis are remembered and collected parts of literature of later period. They are also called sambitas in the sense that they represent oral... tradition of the time.

• Four Vedas and their samhitat, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads form a class of literature known as Shruti.

The Rig Veda

It is divided into 10 books or mandalas. Mandalas II to VII are as Family Mandalas. Book I, VIII and X seem to be added later.

It dated 1500-1000 BC. It has 1028 hymns written by number of priestly families. The Rig Veda was written when Aryans were still in Punjab, buto

The 10th mandala contains the famous Purushainkta hymns that explains the origin of four varnas (Chatur-varna theory). The hymns of Rig Veda were recited by Hotri.

The Yajur Veda

• It is ritualistic Veda. It is divided into Shukla Yajur Veda (Poetry) (included Vajasneyi samhita) and Krishna Yajur Veda (Prose and Poetry) (Kathak, Matriyani and Taittiriya, Vapisthal samhita in which mantra and Brahamanas part are not separated).

• Written in prose, it deals with procedure for performance of sacrifices, and contains rituals as well as hymns.

• The hymns of Yajur Veda were recited by Adhvaryu

The Sama Veda

• Word sama is derived from the root word saman that means 'melody/music

• It has 1875 verses, but except 75, the rest of the hymns have been borrowed from the Rig Veda. It contains Dhrupada Raga. 

• The Sama Veda shows that the Aryans loved music and were not merely puritans. 

• The hymns of Sama Veda were recited by Udgatri.

The Atharva Veda

• The Atharva Veda is entirely different from the other three Vedas and is chronologically the last of the four Vedas. 

• The Satapatha Brahmana used the term trayi ie, the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda and Sama Veda. 

• Atharva Veda mentions beliefs and practices of non-Aryans. It contains magical mantra etc.

• The sabha and the samiti are described as sisters and the two daughters of Prajapati. An Splis

• This Veda is also known as Brahma Veda

The Brahmanas

• These are the prose commentaries on various Vedic hymns. They explain the Vedas in an orthodox way. They explain the hidden meanings behind the hymns of Brahmans. They are expressions of the cause (hetu).

• Shatapatha Brahmana It is the largest Brahmana book. It has the story of Vidiha and also the first water disaster.

The Aranyakas

• The authors of the Aranyakas were some sages dwelling in the forest and explained Vedic texts for their pupils in the form of Aranyakas.

• Aranyakas mean belonging to the forest. So, these Aranyakas are known as Forest Books.

• They form the concluding part of Brahmanas. 

The Upavedas

These are subsidiary Vedas dealing with secular subjects. Important Upavedas are as follow

1. Ayur Veda Pertains to medicine.

ii. Dhanur Veda Pertains to art of warfare.

iii. Gandharva Veda Pertains to music.

iv. Shilpa Veda Pertains to art and literature.

The Upanishads

• The term Upanishads indicates knowledge acquired by sitting close to the teacher.

• Under it, many metaphysical topics such as the origin of universe, the nature of God, the origin and death of mankind etc were discussed.

• They do not believe in orthodox rituals and sacrifices. On the contrary, they are the followers of Karma (Action), Atma (Soul) and God (Brahma).

• They are spiritual and philosophical in nature.

• They are also known as Vedanta or the end of Vedas. They always preach the Jnana marga (knowledge path).

• Upanishads are 108 in number (800-500 BC),

• Satyamev Jayate is extracted from Mundaka Upanishad.

Vedangas (Limbs of Vedas)

• Do The Vedangas are treaties on Science and Arts. The six Vedangas are Shiksha (phonetics), Kalpa

• (rituals), Vyakarna (grammar), Chanda (metrics), Nirukta (etymology) and Jyotisha (astronomy).

• Yaska's Nirukta (5th century BC) is the oldest linguistic text

Philosophy

Six systems of Hindu philosophies, given by six philosophers of ancient India

• Nyaya (Analysis) - Gautam

• Vaisheshika (Atomic characteristic) - Kanada

• Sankhya (Enumeration) - Kapil

• Yoga (Application) - Patanjali

• Purva Mimamsa (Enquiry) - Jaimini

• Uttar Mimamsa (Vedanta) - Vyasa

Smriti

• Dharma Shastra is the other name for smritis, which are law books written in sloka form.
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• Manusmriti is the oldest and most famous. Manu is supposed to be the first king and law maker.

Other Literature

• Apart from these, 18 Puranas in which Matsya, Vishnu, Varaha, Vamana etc are also main vedic literature.

• Ramayana and Mahabharata are the epics of this age.